Mahavira (Vardhamana)

Mahavira, born Vardhamana, is traditionally dated to approximately 599–527 BCE, though some scholars place his life somewhat later, closer to the 5th century BCE, aligning it more closely with the Buddha's era; the precise dates remain a matter of ongoing historical discussion even as Jain tradition holds firmly to the 599–527 BCE span. He is universally regarded, both by Jain tradition and by outside historians, as a genuine historical figure, making him, along with Parshvanatha, one of the two Tirthankaras whose lives are considered part of documented history rather than solely religious memory.

He was born in Kundagrama (Kundapura), near Vaishali in present-day Bihar, into the Kshatriya Jnatri (Jnatrika/Nata) clan. His father, Siddhartha, was a clan chief, and his mother, Trishala (also known as Priyakarini), is described in tradition as a sister of the Lichchhavi king Chetaka of Vaishali, connecting Mahavira's family to the prominent republican polities of the region.

Mahavira lived as a householder into adulthood before renouncing worldly life at around the age of 30 to take up asceticism. He then practiced severe austerity and meditation for roughly twelve years, enduring extreme physical hardship, before attaining Kevala Jnana (omniscience) at about the age of 42.

Following his enlightenment, Mahavira spent roughly three decades teaching, organizing his community of monks, nuns, and lay followers (the fourfold Jain sangha), and reorganizing the ethical and monastic framework of Jainism, including the five great vows (Mahavratas) built upon and extending Parshvanatha's earlier fourfold restraint.

Mahavira attained moksha (final liberation) at Pawapuri, in present-day Bihar, traditionally said to have occurred on the new moon night of Kartik. Jains observe this night as the anniversary of Mahavira's nirvana, which coincides with, and is considered by Jains to be the origin of, the festival of Diwali; tradition also holds that his chief disciple, Gautama Swami, attained omniscience on the very same night.